The Law of Large Number

The weak law
The weak law of large numbers states that if X1, X2, X3, ... is an infinite sequence of random variables, where all the random variables have the same expected value μ and variance σ2; and are uncorrelated (i.e., the correlation between any two of them is zero), then the sample average

converges in probability to μ. Somewhat less tersely: For any positive number ε, no matter how small, we have Proof
Chebyshev's inequality is used to prove this result. Finite variance (for all i) and no correlation yield that

The common mean μ of the sequence is the mean of the sample average:

Using Chebyshev's inequality on results in

This may be used to obtain the following:
\varepsilon) \geq 1 - \operatorname{P}( \left \overline{X}_n-\mu \right \geq \varepsilon) \geq 1 - \frac{\sigma^2}{\varepsilon^2 n}." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/c/f/0/cf0f931a740cc836d2a94a48cacfa27a.png">
As n approaches infinity, the expression approaches 1.
Proof ends here
The result holds also for the 'infinite variance' case, provided the Xi are mutually independent and their (finite) mean μ exists.
A consequence of the weak law of large numbers is the asymptotic equipartition property.
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The strong law
The strong law of large numbers states that if X1, X2, X3, ... is an infinite sequence of random variables that are pairwise independent and identically distributed with E(Xi) < ∞ (and where the common expected value is μ), then

i.e., the sample average converges almost surely to μ.
If we replace the finite expectation condition with a finite second moment condition, E(Xi2) < ∞ (which is the same as assuming that Xi has variance), then we obtain both almost sure convergence and convergence in mean square. In either case, these conditions also imply the consequent weak law of large numbers, since almost sure convergence implies convergence in probability (as, indeed, does convergence in mean square).
This law justifies the intuitive interpretation of the expected value of a random variable as the "long-term average when sampling repeatedly".

A weaker law and proof
Proofs of the above weak and strong laws of large numbers are rather involved. The consequent of the slightly weaker form below is implied by the weak law above (since convergence in distribution is implied by convergence in probability), but has a simpler proof.
Theorem. Let X1, X2, X3, ... be a sequence of random variables, independent and identically distributed with common mean μ < ∞, and define the partial sum Sn := X1 + X2 + ... +Xn. Then, Sn / n converges in distribution to μ.
Proof. (See [1], p. 174) By Taylor's theorem for complex functions, the characteristic function of any random variable, X, with finite mean μ, can be written as

Then, since the characteristic function of the sum of independent random variables is the product of their characteristic functions, the characteristic function of Sn / n is

The limit eitμ is the characteristic function of the constant random variable μ, and hence by the Lévy continuity theorem, Sn / n converges in distribution to μ. Note that the proof of the central limit theorem, which tells us more about the convergence of the average to μ (when the variance σ 2 is finite), follows a very similar approach.

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Takaful (Islamic Insurance)

In modern business, one of the ways to reduce the risk of loss due to misfortunes is through insurance. The basic idea behind insurance is the sharing of risk. The concept of insurance where resources are pooled to help the needy does not contradict Shariah.

Conventional insurance involves the elements of uncertainty (Al-gharar) in the contract of insurance, gambling (Al-maisir) as the consequences of the presence of uncertainty and interest (Al-riba) in the investment activities of the conventional insurance companies which contravene the rules of Shariah. It is generally accepted by Muslim Jurists that the operation of conventional insurance does not conform to the rules and requirements of Shariah.

Takaful is an alternative form of cover which a Muslim can avail himself against the risk of loss due to misfortunes. The concept of takaful is not a new concept, in fact it had been practised by the Muhajrin of Mecca and the Ansar of Medina following the hijra of the Prophet over 1400 years ago.

Takaful is based on the idea that what is uncertain with respect to an individual may cease to be uncertain with respect to a very large number of similar individuals. Insurance by combining the risks of many people enables each individual to enjoy the advantage provided by the law of large numbers.

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* Law of Large Number "In a statistical context, laws of large numbers imply that the average of a random sample from a large population is likely to be close to the mean of the whole population.

In probability theory, several laws of large numbers say that the average of a sequence of random variables with a common distribution converges (in the senses given below) to their common expectation, in the limit as the size of the sequence goes to infinity. Various formulations of the law of large numbers, and their associated conditions, specify convergence in different ways.

When the random variables have a finite variance, the central limit theorem extends our understanding of the convergence of their average by describing the distribution of the standardised difference between the sum of the random variables and the expectation of this sum. Regardless of the underlying distribution of the random variables, this standardized difference converges in distribution to a standard normal random variable.

The phrase "law of large numbers" is also sometimes used to refer to the principle that the probability of any possible event (even an unlikely one) occurring at least once in a series increases with the number of events in the series. For example, the odds that you will win the lottery are very low; however, the odds that someone will win the lottery are quite good, provided that a large enough number of people purchased lottery tickets.

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Principles in Islamic Banking

Islamic banking has the same purpose as conventional banking except that it claims to operate in accordance with the rules of Shariah, known as Fiqh al-Muamalat (Islamic rules on transactions). The basic principle of Islamic banking is the sharing of profit and loss and the prohibition of riba´ (interest). Amongst the common Islamic concepts used in Islamic banking are profit sharing (Mudharabah), safekeeping (Wadiah), joint venture (Musharakah), cost plus (Murabahah) and leasing (Ijarah).
In an Islamic mortgage transaction, instead of loaning the buyer money to purchase the item, a bank might buy the item itself from the seller, and re-sell it to the buyer at a profit, while allowing the buyer to pay the bank in installments. However, the fact that it is profit cannot be made explicit and therefore there are no additional penalties for late payment. In order to protect itself against default, the bank asks for strict collateral. The goods or Land is registered to the name of the buyer from the start of the transaction. This arrangement is called Murabaha. Another approach is Ijara wa Iqtina, which is similar to real estate leasing. Islamic banks handle loans for vehicles in a similar way (selling the vehicle at a higher-than-market price to the debtor and then retaining ownership of the vehicle until the loan is paid).
There are several other approaches used in business deals. Islamic banks lend their money to companies by issuing floating rate interest loans. The floating rate of interest is pegged to the company's individual rate of return. Thus the bank's profit on the loan is equal to a certain percentage of the company's profits. Once the principal amount of the loan is repaid, the profit-sharing arrangement is concluded. This practice is called Musharaka. Further, Mudaraba is venture capital funding of an entrepreneur who provides labor while financing is provided by the bank, so that both profit and risk are shared. Such participatory arrangements between capital and labor reflect the Islamic view that the borrower must not bear all the risk/cost of a failure, as it is Allah who determines that failure, and intends that it fall on all those involved.
Last, Islamic banking is restricted to Islamically acceptable deals, which exclude those involving alcohol, pork, gambling, etc. Thus ethical investing is the only acceptable form of investment, and moral purchasing is encouraged.
Islamic banks have grown recently in the Muslim world but are a very small share of the global banking system. Micro-lending institutions such as Grameen Bank use conventional lending practices, and are popular in some Muslim nations, but are clearly not Islamic banking.
In theory, Islamic banking should be synonymous with full-reserve banking, with banks achieving a 100% reserve ratio [2]. However in practice this is rarely the case
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Islamic Development Bank (IDB)

THE Islamic Development Bank (IDB) is an international financial institution established in accordance with the Declaration of Intent issued by the Conference of Finance Ministers of Muslim countries held in Jeddah in Dhul Q'adah 1393H (1973).

The inaugural meeting of the Board of Governors took place in Rajab 1395H, corresponding to July 1975. The bank formally opened on 15 Shawwal 1395H corresponding to Oct 20, 1975.

The primary purpose of the bank is to foster the economic development and social progress of member countries and Muslim communities in non-member countries, individually as well as jointly, in accordance to the principles of syariah i.e. Islamic law. The present membership of the bank consists of 53 countries.

As the only multilateral development banking institution that operates wholly according to the principles of syariah the membership of the bank covers countries in the continents of Africa, Asia, Europe, the Middle East and Latin America.

The basic condition for membership is that the prospective member country should be a member of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference, pay its contribution to the capital of the bank and be willing to accept such terms and conditions as might be decided by the IDB Board of Governors.

The principal functions assigned to the bank are to participate in equity capital and to grant loans for productive projects and enterprises besides providing financial assistance to member countries in other forms for economic and social development.

The bank is also required to establish and operate special funds for specific purposes including a fund for assistance to Muslim communities in non?member countries, in addition to setting up trust funds.

It is also charged with the responsibility of assisting in the promotion of foreign trade, especially in capital goods, among member countries; providing technical assistance; and extending training facilities for personnel engaged in development activities in member countries to conform to syariah.

The IDB had to pursue these objectives in a vacuum so to speak as there was no Islamic bank at the time of its inception to serve as a model. Nonetheless, in the relatively short period of its existence, the bank has made considerable progress in several areas.

The current authorised capital of the bank is six billion Islamic dinars and its subscribed capital increased to four billion Islamic diners payable according to specific schedules and in freely convertible currency acceptable to the Bank.

Money and capital markets
The flow of financial resources from Muslim countries in the beginning to conventional financial markets was understandable since in those days Muslims did not have a viable global Islamic financial system as an alternative to the conventional system.

The dearth of financial instruments has led to serious liquidity management problems for Islamic. financial institutions and has curtailed the development of a global Islamic financial market

Thus, the establishment of an international Islamic financial market is not only necessary but need to be implemented on an urgent basis. Such a market will provide an avenue for efficient management of Islamic assets and liabilities at the international level.

The IDB is embarking, jointly with a working group comprising the central banks and monetary authorities of some member countries, on the development of an International Islamic Financial Market (IIFM) to serve the urgent need of member countries for an efficient cost effective and more business?friendly financial intermediary. It is expected to help attract capital inflows that are necessary for development in IDB member countries.

A main goal of the IIFM will be to create an interactive framework for cooperation world?wide among different market players with varying needs to help deepen the Islamic financial market and make it more competitive, convenient and accessible to all.

This should help strengthen the architecture of the international financial system by its twin characteristics: it will be complementary to conventional banking and finance where the latter is compatible with syariah principles of fairness in sharing risk/rewards by all market players, and will provide a more business?friendly alternative to conventional finance where the syariah principles are not observed.

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Islamic Inter-bank Money Market

The Islamic inter-bank money market (IIMM) was introduced on January 3, 1994 as a short-term intermediary to provide a ready source of short-term investment outlets based on Syariah principles. Through the IIMM, the Islamic banks and banks participating in the SPI would be able to match their funding requirements effectively and efficiently. BNM issued the Guidelines on the IIMM on December 18, 1993 to facilitate proper implementation of the IIMM.
The IIMM covers the following aspects:-
Interbank trading of Islamic financial instruments; and
Mudharabah Interbank Investments ("MII")

Only Islamic banks, commercial banks, merchant banks and eligible finance companies and discount houses are allowed to participate in the IIMM.

Interbank trading
Eligible banking institutions are allowed to trade in the designated Islamic financial instruments, such as Islamic accepted bills and Islamic debt securities among themselves. GIC are non-tradable but the players may exchange the papers among themselves based on the price issued by BNM.

Mudharabah interbank investments (MII)
MII refers to a mechanism whereby a deficit Islamic banking institution (‘investee bank”) can obtain investment from a surplus Islamic banking institution (“investor bank”) based on Mudharabah (profit-sharing). The period of investment is from overnight to 12 months, while the rate of return is based on the rate of gross profit before distribution for investments of 1-year of the investee bank. The profit-sharing ratio is negotiable among both parties. The investor bank at the time of negotiation would not know what the return would be, as the actual return will be crystallised towards the end of the investment period. The principal invested shall be repaid at the end of the period, together with a share of the profit arising from the used of the fund by the investee bank. Beginning February 2, 1996, BNM introduced the minimum benchmark rate for the MII i.e. the prevailing rate of the Government Investment Issues plus a spread of 0.5 per cent. The purpose of the benchmark rate is to ensure that only banks with reasonable rate returns participate in the MII.

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Concepts of Islamic Banking

01.Wadiah Yad Dhamanah (savings with guarantee)
Refers to goods or deposits, which have been deposited with another person, who is not the owner, for safekeeping. As wadiah is a trust, the depository becomes the guarantor and, therefore guarantees repayment of the whole amount of the deposits, or any part thereof, outstanding in the account of depositors, when demanded. The depositors are not entitled to any share of the profits but the depository may provide returns to the depositors as a token of appreciation.

02. Mudharabah (profit-sharing)
Refers to an agreement made between a capital provider and another party (entrepreneur), to enable the entrepreneur to carry out business projects, based on a profit sharing basis, of a pre-agreed ratio. In the case of losses, the losses are borne by the provider of the funds.

03. Musyarakah (joint venture)
Refers to a partnership or joint venture for a specific business, whereby the distribution of profits will be apportioned according to an agreed ratio. In the event of losses, both parties will share the losses on the basis of their equity participation.

04. Murabahah (cost plus)
Refers to the sale of goods at a price, which includes a profit margin as agreed to by both parties. Such sales contract is valid on the condition that the price, other costs and the profit margin of the seller are stated at the time of the agreement of sale.

05. Bai’ Bithaman Ajil (deferred payment sale)
Refers to the sale of goods on a deferred payment basis at a price, which includes a profit margin agreed to by both parties.

06. Bai’ al-Dayn (debt trading)
Refers to debt financing, i.e. the provision of financial resources required for production, commerce and services by way of sale/purchase of trade documents and papers. Only documents evidencing real debts arising from bona fide merchant transactions can be traded.

07. Bai’ al-Inah
The financier sells an asset to the customer on a deferred payment and then the financier immediately repurchases the asset for cash at a discount.

08. Al-Ijarah Thumma al-Bai’ (leasing and subsequently purchase)
Refers to a Al-Ijarah (leasing/renting) contract to be followed by Al-Bai (purchase) contract. Under the first contract, the hirer leases the goods from the owner at an agreed rental over a specified period. Upon expiry of the leasing period, the hirer enters into a second contract to purchase the goods from the owner at an agreed price.

09. Ijarah (leasing)
Refers to an arrangement under which the lessor leases equipment, building or other facility to a client at an agreed rental against a fixed charge, as agreed by both parties.

10. Qardhul Hassan (benevolent loan)
Refers to an interest free loan. The borrower is only required to repay the principal amount borrowed, but he may pay an extra amount at his absolute discretion, as a token of appreciation.

11. Bai’ as-Salam (future delivery)
Refers to an agreement whereby payment is made in advance for delivery of specified goods in the future.

12. Bai’ al-Istijrar (supply contract)
Refers to an agreement between the client and the supplier, whereby the supplier agrees to supply a particular product on an on going basis, for example monthly, at an agreed price and on the basis of an agreed mode of payment.

13. Kafalah (guarantee)
Refers to a contract of guarantee by the contracting party or any third party to guarantee the performance of the contract terms by contracting parties.

14. Rahnu (collateralised borrowing)
Refers to an arrangement whereby a valuable asset is placed as collateral for debt. The collateral may be disposed in the event of default.

15. Wakalah (nominating another person to act)
Refers to a situation, where a person nominates another person to act on his behalf.

16. Hiwalah (remittance)
Refers to a transfer of funds/debt from the depositor’s/debtor’s account to the receiver’s/creditor’s account whereby a commission may be charged for such service.

17. Sarf (foreign exchange)
Refers to the buying and selling of foreign currencies.

18. Ujr (fee)
Refers to commissions or fees charged for services.

19. Hibah (gift)
Refers to gifts award voluntarily in return for loan given.

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Were Are We Came From? – Africa –

Struggle for Existence

Among the various groups of primitive people that Africa is home to the African Bushmen have inhabited the Dark Continent for at least 20.000 years. Basically hunter, the Kalahari deserts is their home ground.
They live simple life, where finding food forms their occupation. They build temporary homes in the desert as they go in search of wood and food. The Bushmen tribe is spread far beyond South Africa into Namibia, Angola, Botswana, Zambia, Lesotho and Mozambique. Once spread over the whole of the Kalahari deserts, the Bushmen are now forced to stay in the places unsuitable for hunting and gathering. This began with the colonization of Africa by the European in the last few hundreds years. The tribals have been facing eviction from their ancestral lands, and oppression amounting to a massive though unspoken genocide. This has reduced them in numbers, from several million to just about 100.000. The organization of the Bushmen tribe is very simple – without a chief or paramount leader. Their primary weapon is a bow made of a stout bough bent into a sharp curve mixed with the venom of snakes.

Bushmen ear practically anything. The meat they consume is half cooked. They also eat raw insect like lice and ants, the eggs of the latter being regarded as a great delicacy. In hard times, they eat lizards, snakes, frogs, worms and caterpillars. That they are different from other tribes is evident from their appearance. The tallest man in the community would be no more that 4 feet 9 inches and the tallest women are about four feet. Unlike other tribes, Bushmen rear no domestic animals. Their unique lives have become their nemesis. They all suffer from perception that their lifestyle is ‘primitive’ and that they need to be ‘civilised’.
In Botswana the Government forced most all the Bushmen off the central Kalahari Game Reserve. The harassment began in 1986, and the first forced removals were in 1997. Those that remained, faced torture, drastic restriction in their hunting rights, and routine harassment. In early 2002, this harassment intensified, accompanied by the destruction of the Bushmen’s water pump, the draining of their existing water supplies into the desert, and the banning of hunting and gathering. Almost all were forced out by these tactics. The Bushmen are now miserable resettlement camps, unable to hunt or gather and dependent on government handouts and support.
Like the Bushmen, many tribes that are ‘different’ face similar problems. Pygmies have their own settlement in the forests and retreat into them, avoiding roads entirely. But, governments want them to stay in the villages along the road, where they can be counted and made to pay taxes. Their way of life is seen as alien and one that needs to be ‘corrected’.
A natural way of living that these people know, is slowly vanishing in the tides of development.



Sunday, Vijay Times – Bangalore. 02 July 2006


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Were Are We Came From? – India –

Match of Unequal

Days after Tsunami of December 2004, a muscular, naked man on one of tiny island of Andamans, threatened a helicopter hovering above with drawn bow and arrow. For millions of people who watched him on TV, the threat perhaps looked comical.
But for this indigenous man of North sentinel Island, however, and for hundreds of other man, women and children hiding from civilization in deep jungles and remote islands around the world, hostility to other humans is necessary for survival itself. When a tribe has long live is isolation, contact with a dominant culture usually means decline – and somehow the invisible people know it.
Many such indigenous tribes are found in Andaman and Nicobar islands. The sole inhabitants of North sentinel Island, the sentinelese, are one of the most isolated and least known human tribes in the world today. They are a true hunting – gathering society with considerable reliance on sea resources. The estimates of the population of these tribes is between 80 to 100. they have rejected outsiders for centuries. Until recently they didn’t even know the use of fire.

Various aboriginals have occupied these islands for an upward of 60.000 years. They killed almost everyone who landed on their shores, apparently in the belief that ‘sea spirit’ – sailor – savored human flesh. But for them problems began in 1857. The British colonized the islands, effortlessly defeated “10 tribes of savages” and pacified them by fostering craving for tobacco and alcohol. Because the islander had no immunity to the killer germs that breed in close – packed society, they began to fall prey immediately to epidemics. Of the perhaps 8.000 members of the original 10 tribes, only 45 or so individual still survive. Most of the man alcoholic, while the women have affairs with outsiders, whose lighter skin and straighter hair they hope to bestow their offspring.

Dispossessed by civilization: Isolated people are particularly vulnerable to dispossession. Consider the Jarawa, another Andaman tribe whose enmity with all other had spared it the 19th Century epidemics. Because the Jarawa resisted the felling of their forests, armed police hunted and shot them throughout the first half of the 20th Century. In the 1950s, after the Andaman Island had passed to India, authorities settled thousands of people near Jarawa jungle, and, when clashes ensued, revived the century old participation strategy. Every month, for decade, officials and anthropologists left gift on Jarawa beaches, eventually managing to create a taste for thing such as red cloth and rice.
The Jarawa who had been free of even the common cold began to die of pneumonia, bronchitis, measles, mumps and malaria. Jarawa now number around 300. Poachers have overrun their territory, while others have introduced addictions to force the nomads to barter jungle produce.

III-Conceived plans: The Onge community is one of the four Negrito tribal communities that still survive in the Andaman Islands. Its population today is around a hundreds individuals; the 732 sq km of the thickly forested island of little Andaman is the only area they inhabit.
The community is on the brink of extinction. The Onge community had flourished in the Andaman Islands for centuries. Not much is known about the community, but whatever is known is proof enough of the astonishing depth and diversity of its knowledge. The story of the Onge people’s alienation started in the late 1960s, when the government of India planned a massive development and colonization programme. Thousands of outsiders were settled in Little Andaman. The settler population grew rapidly; from a few hundreds in the 1960s to 7.000 in 1984 and over 12.000 in 1991, displacing Onges from some of their most preferred habitats.
Attempts were made to introduce a cash economy in the community, which did not have even a barter system. III-conceived schemes, such as the raising of coconut plantation (in which Onge people were made workers), cattle-rearing (the community does not consume milk) and pig-breeding, were introduced. All of them failed.
It is clear now that the survival of the indigenous can only be ensured if the present policies vis-à-vis development and the tribal people are reviewed with sensitivity. Serious attention must be paid to what the tribal people have to say and an honest attempt made, to find out what they want.



Sunday, Vijay Times – Bangalore. 02 July 2006


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Were Are We Came From? - Arctic –

Hunter of the Arctic

Two groups of people live in the Arctic – the Eskimos (Inupiat group) and the scientist, thought the later are later arrivals. New – age technology has found its place in the lives many Arctic people, but without the tradition knowledge of subsistence, life in Arctic is near impossible. The Inupiat are a group of Eskimo in Arctic Alaska, living mainly on Point Barrow. They, like other indigenous groups, have strong views on the earth and how it should be utilized.

A whale of a time: All Inupiat believes they have access to supernatural powers, but the Shamans are considered to be specially endowed. With the help of supernatural forces they assist in informing the whaling crew of the whales location are. Whaling is a primary occupation here. Before the whaling season, all hunters under go strict preparation and abstinence. When the four days of hunting elapse, the crew feast and then they set out on the journey.

Outside influence: when the whaling tradition expanded to include the non-Eskimos, beginning in the mid 19th Century, traditional norms were disregarded and there was excessive hunting. The dart and shoulder gun replaced traditional tools like whaling harpoon and lances. With decrease in the bowhead whale population, the walrus wan hunted. The over hunting of sea mammals resulted in starvation and even death for many Eskimos. As the whaling tradition brought more non-native people to Arctic region, Point Barrows population grew considerably, and modernization followed. The Inupiat culture, however, was only moderately influenced.
The wage economy made its presence in 1940, but traditional hunting still held high prestige. The male offered wage-job which they did not accept unless time was given off for hunting and fishing. But, in the late 70s’, restrictions were placed on bowhead whale hunting. This greatly angered the Inupiat. Arguments were made against the restrictions. Whale hunting was a human right, and no constraints should be placed by any national or international organization. The legislation was soon revoked.

Oil resources: Another problem emerged when the outsiders came to know of the rich oil resources in Arctic Alaska. The discovery of petroleum in 1967 was huge for many oil companies. Despite economic advantages there continued to be an increased risk of oil spills. If this happens, the migration course of the bowhead and other mammals would be altered and great amounts of resources would be lost.
Land ownership also heated the debate. The Inupiat strongly believe that land is something to be share and not individually owned. An agreement made in 1971, declared that approximately one-ninth of the state belonged to the natives. After 30 years of legal and political struggle for self-government, the vast Arctic land of the Canadian north has been returned to the sovereignty of the Inupiat. Since April 1999, it has been known as Nunavut, OOur Land.

The combined efforts of native Alaskans had a great impact on the future of the state. With an increasing populations, the Inupiat, in particular, have not ceased any traditional practices. Despite an amalgamation of western culture with their own, the culture identity of the Eskimos is still strong. Whaling has been a basic subsistence for them for thousands of years and continued to be so for many generations.


Sunday, Vijay Times – Bangalore. 02 July 2006




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Where Are We Came From? – Australia –

Down and Out

They have been around for the last 50.000 years. Recent studies have also shown that they were probably the first Homosapiens to have inhabited our planet. However, numerous factors have led to their gradual fall – their tribe is bow struggling for survival.
The term ‘Aboriginal‘ means the first or the earliest known. Until the dawn of colonialism, the Australian aboriginal lived as creative clan and had been one of the fittest enough to survive harsh climates. With the entry of the European settlers sometime during the 15th Century, these native began to be exposed to exploitation of sorts. It is said that their number was close to 300.000 in the 1700s, but it drastically reduced to a mere 30.000 in the 1930s. in place of bygone era of rich culture, strong religious and moral ground, strength and integrity, the aboriginal of today are left with nothing except poverty, poor health, low life expectancy, violent crime, racism, substance abuse, low rate of education, unemployment, etc to characterize them.

Dreamtime: There isn’t enough archaeological evidence to present a clear picture of the early Australian aboriginals. However, it has been known that they innovated many devices and traditions alike. The foundation for these indigenous lot lies in a concept knows as ‘Dreamtime’. It refers to the belief that their land had been created for them by ancestral superheroes. In fact, each element of Nature – sky, rock, tree, animal, etc – were believed to have been created during the ‘Dreamtime’. In fact, aboriginal religion and laws are based on such beliefs.
Studies have also establishes their links with Melanesian and Indonesian much before the European colonist arrived in Australia.

Read to degradation: The degradation of the Australian Aboriginals is chiefly attributed to excesses of colonialism. It was the year 1606, at the first recorded sighting of Australia, Dutch captain William Jansz described the native as “…savage, cruel, black barbarians who slew some of our sailor”. Though the Dutch government had declared the region unfit for colonization, it was gun powder that finally ruled and Australian aboriginals eventually became the colonized lot.
The natives contracted diseases, against which they had no resistance. They began losing their hunting ground, and were taken as forced labour. The settlers could punish and even kill them legally for no apparent reason. Religious conversions were imposed. Aboriginal children were taken away from their parents and put under the oft-harsh management of the church, as an attempt to bring them to follow the white society. Most of these children, referred to as the ‘stolen generation’, never got to see their parent of their families again.
It was only during World War II that about a thousand aboriginals were ‘employed’ in the military forces. In 1967, they were given the right to vote and receive state benefits like their mainstream counterparts. Protests against exploitation continued – both by the natives themselves and other who had identified themselves with their cause – and in 1972, the Australian government admitted, for the first time, the land had been taken away from the native and was right to give it back to them. Subsequently, in the year 1992, the previous legal concept of terranullius was declared invalid, which recognized the ownership of land by the natives. Though such legislations have been considered historic, their implementation remains a problem. Many aboriginals are engaged in reclaiming their lands, which is a difficult process and exposes them to more exploitation. The rate of suicide in police custody is on the rise. The aboriginals are dying young because of lifestyle factors; in fact, a 20-year study has shown that while the main stream Australians have experienced a marked increase in life expectancy at birth, that of the indigenous people is set up to 20 years lower.
Beside, cases of domestic violence are rampant; a study conducted by Australian universities has shown that one in four aboriginal women aged between 18 and 23 report some experience of domestic violence. The Australian aboriginals now number around 460.000 or 2.27 per cent of the total Australian population.



Sunday, Vijay Times – Bangalore. 02 July 2006


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Giant Rock Art - America -

– America –
Giant Rock Art

In the black hills of South Dakota, USA is the Mount Rushmore National Memorial. It is very large carving upon the granite face and its shows the faces of four of the greatest and most loved Presidents of the United States of America. The four American Presidents are Gorge Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Theodore Roosevelt and Abraham Lincoln.

The head of Presidents Abraham Lincoln is 18 meters tall. To demonstrate how tall this actual is, if they had proceeded to make the body of the President it would have been 142 meters tall. This amazingly huge monument was built by Gutzon Borglum. The workers who curved out the faces on Mount Rushmore used a model that one twelth of the final size for measurements. Granite is a very hard rock and the workers had to use heavy drill and explosive like dynamite to carve out the face of the cliff. The work on memorial began in 1927 and went on till 1941. The builder Gutzon Borglum died in 1941 just before the memorial was completed and his son Linson continue the work and finished the memorial soon after.

The completed memorial stands about 40 Km away from Rapid City it is about 1745 meters above the sea level and more than 150 meters above the floor of the valley, which makes it taller than the Great Pyramid of Egypt.

Gorge Washington, who is known as the ‘father’ of his country, was the first president of United State of America he commanded the army that won American independent from the British, in the American revolution. He also had the major role in writing the constitution of the United States of America

Abraham Lincoln was president of United State from 1861 to 1865. Known all over the world as the man who ended slavery in America, Lincoln is well known for the fine speeches that he gave, like the Gettysburg address.

Thomas Jefferson was the third president of the United States of America. He is known for the writing of the declaration of independent. Besides being the president he was also the scholar, lawyer, architect and inventor. He designed the Virginia Capitol and the University of Virginia. He was an ardent inventor and invented a lap desk and an improved type of plough.

Theodore Roosevelt was the president of United States of America from 1901 to 1909. He was known for his great leadership abilities and his desire to make America popular in the new world.

Thus four Presidents were chosen to constitute the Mount Rushmore National Memorial, as they are considered the four greatest Presidents of America – the men who wrought the land with their vision, hard work and dedication.





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Where We Came From? – Latin America –

Threatened Lives

If you happen to wander about the dense regions of the Amazon forest, you are likely to find naked people, in a community of their own, leading their lives oblivious to charms of city life. These indigenous people live close to the equator in blazing temperatures, and consider the usage of clothes a waste, a mere hindrance that poses an inconvenience. They are unperturbed by the norm of society. So simple and naïve are the ways of the indigenous people of the Amazon. But their life and their existence is being threatened by the spoils of civilization. Indigenous people comprise of only 0.02 per cent of the population in Brazil, and are isolated from main communities. Most of these tribes lives in rural areas of dense jungles, and are semi-nomadic, agricultural labourers, or hunters.
There are about 200 indigenous groups in the vast expense of the Amazon forest, each one distinct in their innate customs and beliefs, replete with a rich cultural heritage that has been passed on from generations. With such a vast repertoire of tradition, to see them fading into oblivion is not something to be brushed off as non-important.
The largest of the tribes is the Guarani (over 20.000 in number), closely followed by the Yanomani. The vast empire of these tribes can be summarized into 22 different indigenous groups have different language, and celebrate their own set of festivals, just like us.
Although the languages differ, they all interact with each other for various occasions. The total population of these groups spans 65.000 individuals. These groups keep going deeper and deeper into the forest as the outsiders get closer to where they live, and thus, not much is known about them. To stop the constant migration of tribes, it has been suggested that an indigenous protected area be setup so that they can feel secure and stop going further into the depths of the forest.

Treading a troubled path: Their population is dwindling day by day, and most of these tribes face similar problems. In Brazil, Indian land right are an inherent part of the constitution, but they have been manipulated and weakened by a new rule that has allowed non-Indians the right to challenge Indian lands. In Guyana, Indians hold the right to the title of their land, but have no right to its mineral wealth, letting government authorities auction off mining concessions. Activist in Boa Vista sat that Venezuela lags behind in recognizing Indian rights. It laws seek to assimilate indigenous people, and many attempt to give them special status is seen as a threat. The most severe effects are on the isolated indigenous tribes still living in the Brazilian, Ecuadorian and Peruvian part of the Amazon.
The Korubos of Brazil, the Tageari of Ecuador, the Ayoreo of Paraguay and the Mashco-piros, Ashaninkas and Yaminahuas of Peru, which together amount to a total of only 5.000 individuals, are on the verge of extinction, with the pressures of modern civilization encroaching their territory. What we call development, in fact is the very source of their homeland and livelihood. What’s more, most of these tribes are treated as inferior and are looked down upon, making them shun society and civilization even more.
Another tribe that is winding down the path of extinction is the Assurini, living in Brazil. Their tribe, known for their fine-crafted pottery, is reduced to just 57 members. The children amount to just seven, and the womenfolk who are responsible for the artistic tradition of pottery making, number to a mere 10. most of these tribes have their own language which is hardly found in any written form. If their art and culture are not safeguarded and recorded, they may soon disappear forever.
For hundreds of years, Brazilian Indian have been mercilessly thrown off their land by those seeking to claim its wealth for themselves. Today, this violence continues with the involvement of many more sectors of society, such as business and prospectors, who want to exploit the land’s natural resources, land owner who illegally acquire the ownership of indigenous land, logging companies, and the military, alleging national security interest, who seek to reduce and limit Indian territories in border areas. The other sources of threat are through missionaries, anthropologists and growing rage of tourism.
An example of this is what happened in the Ecuadorian Amazon when a dozen Tagaeris, of the less than 300 still alive, were massacred by Huaoranis, who now live a western lifestyle. The murders were done in view of the logging companies keen on exploiting unexplored territories.
At the time of European contact, indigenous people numbered around five million in Brazil. Ever since, these number have dwindled to less than 200.000 and anthropologists believe that a forest tribe goes extinct every years, and this has been happening since 1900. Its time that humanity realizes that these indigenous people are human, just like us, and not inferior in any way. They have rich culture heritage, and many of dying art forms are unique in their own way, which yet remain to be explored and recorded. Around 80 per cent of the world’s biodiversity is found in indigenous regions, and this it self calls for conservation acts to be implemented.


Sunday, Vijay Times – Bangalore. 02 July 2006



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Where Are We Came From? – Native American –

Victim of Genocide

With an estimate population of six million people, Native Americans make up two per cent of the US population. A minority of US Native Americans live on Indian reservations. In Canada, they are known as First Nations and make up approximately three per cent of the Canadian population. The US states and several of the inhabited insular areas that are not part of the continental US also contain indigenous people in the US, including the Inuit, Yupik Eskimos, and Aleuts, are not usually counted as Native Americans nor are Native Hawaiians (also known as Kanaka Maoli and Kanaka ‘Oiwi) or other Pacific Islander American people.

Initial impact: The European colonization of American changed lives and cultures of Native Americans. In the 15th to 19th Century, their populations were ravaged by displacement, disease, warfare with Europeans, and enslavement. The first Native American groups encountered by Christopher Columbus in 1492, the 250.000 to 100.000 Island Arawaks of Haiti Quisqueya, Cubanacan (Cuba) and Boriquen Puerto Rico, were enslaved. It is said that only 500 survived by the year 1550, and the groups was considered extinct before 1650. yet DNA studies show that the genetic contribution of the Taino to that region continues, and the mitochondrial DNA studies of the Taino are said to show relationship to the northern indigenous nations, such as Inuit (Eskimo) and other.
European also brought disease, against which the Native American had no immunity. Chicken pox and measles, though common and rarely fatal among European, often proved fatal to Native Americans, and more dangerous disease such as small pox were especially deadly to Native American populations. Some historians estimate that up to eight per cent of some Native populations may have died due to European diseases.

The American Revolutionary war: Frontier warfare during the American Revolution was particularly brutal, and numerous atrocities ware committed. The largest of these expeditions was the Sullivan Expedition on 1779, which destroyed more than 40 Iroquois villages, in order to neutralize Iroquois raids in upstate New York. In the 19th Century, the incessant westward expansion of the US incrementally compelled large number of Native Americans to reluctantly resettle further west.
Reformers, in effort to ‘civilise’ Indian, adapted the practice of education native children in Indian Boarding Schools. These schools proved traumatic to Native American children who were forbidden to speak their native languages, were taught Christianity instead of their native religions and were forced to abandon their various Native American identities and adopt European – American culture. There are also many documented cases of sexual, physical and mental abuses which occurred at these schools.

Current status: These are 563 federally recognized tribal governments in the US. The US recognizes the right of these tribes to self-government and support their tribal sovereignty and self determination. Limitations on tribal power of self government include the same limitation applicable to states. According to 2003 US Census Bureau estimates, a little over one third of the 2.786.652 Native American in the US live in three states: California at 413.382, Arizona at 294.137 and Oklahoma at 279.559.
As of 2000, the largest tribes in the US by population were Cherokee, Navajo, Choctaw, Sioux, Chippewa, Apache, Lumbee, Blackfeet, Iroquois, and Pueblo. In 2000, eight of 10 American with Native American ancestry were of mixed blood.
Then there are Tribal Nations that have been denied recognition such as the Muwekma Ohlone and the Miami tribe of Indiana. Many smaller eastern tribes have been trying to gain official recognition of their tribal status. The recognition confers some benefits, including the right to label arts and crafts as Native American and they can apply for grants that are specifically reserved for Native Americans.
To be established as a tribal group, members have to submit extensive genealogical proof of tribal descent, yet many Native American were denied their Native American heritage, because it would have deprived them to many rights. Gambling has become a leading industry. Casinos operated by many Native American governments generate revenue that some communities use as leverage to build diversified economies. However, most tribes feel that casinos destroy culture and do no participate in the gaming industry.



Sunday, Vijay Times – Bangalore. 02 July 2006





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Where Are We Came From? - Papua New Guinea -

‘Stone Age’ Tribes

The British, Germans, Dutch and Japanese had, for varying times colonized the land of New Guinea, but the tribes, some inhabiting the region for more than 40.000 years were either ignored of looked down upon as mere curiosities! Even before the arrival of the European, the tribe of this island had limited exposure to the outside world, in fact as late as 1998 two new tribes (Aukedate and Vahudate) were ‘discovered’ they were cannibals.
Hundreds of tribes have their own quaint customs with distinct languages, all part of unique Melanesian culture. The Amungme, Bauzi, Dani, Kamoro, Kombai, Korowai, Mee, Sentani and Yali are some of the well known tribes that make up the diverse riot of living history in these rainforests.

The real fascination with Guinea tribes for the outside world began with the discovery of the Korowai and Kombai, two Stone Age tribes. With their stone axes, bone knifes and wooden hammers to extract Sago – their staple diet taken from the Sago tree – Their immediately became object of scrutiny. These people were closest modern man had come to with his stone ages ancestors. Bones and wings of flying foxes, dog and pig tooth necklaces decorating their body and animal bones pierced through their noses, made them more than curiosities. The near naked people drew in a large tourist interest as well. But what got them notoriety was the fact that they practiced cannibalism. It is estimated that the Kombai number around 5.000, The Korowai about 2.500.
Tourist deluge: Pictures of Korowai and Kombai hunters armed with the bows and arrows became a prized possession for adventure tourist. The houses of these people, some times built as high as 150 feet above the ground, for protection against mosquitoes and warring tribes, were soon not too far or high enough. These indigenous people who knew nothing of the outside world became celebrities overnight. Thrill seekers, photo-journalisms, anthropologists, missionaries and anyone with a few thousand dollars to spare made ‘first contact’ with them.
On the other side of the Island (West Papua or Irian Jaya) controlled by Indonesia, rapid change is having a devastating effect on the fragile forest and people. Indonesia’s migration program has seen the over populated nation inducing its citizens to settle in the sparsely populated island with promise of land. Millions have taken up the offer.
Almost all immigrants readily find work in the timber logging. Annually, Indonesia cuts down three million acres of rainforest eating rapidly into the traditional homeland of primitive tribes. During the 1980s the Government tried its best to move the Korowai and Kombai clans into newly opened villages. The villages still remain, but the absenteeism rate is high, because of vast distance between the traditional food sources and the villages. The extreme primitive social and traditional system of the tribes makes it almost impossible for them to come to terms with modern reality in such a short time. Development projects like the construction of the world’s largest copper and gold mine has also dealt a death blow to the order of life that had survived for hundreds of generations.
The land of the ancient people has been opened up for development. This has meant little for the indigenous people. Who have viewed it as an invasion of their land, exploitation of their forests and loss of their pristine cultures.

Sunday, Vijay Times – Bangalore. 02 July 2006









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Where Are We Came From? – New Zealand –

Lost Innocence

There is a conflict about their origin as some historians feel that Maori people are Polynesians who actually came from Southeast Asia, while other historians feel that these people were of Polynesian origin who is came to Pacific from America. This is based on the fact their staple food crop of Kumara or sweet potato, came from South America. Moreover, there is no exact date mentioning the Polynesian settlement. It was thought to be between 950 to 1130AD but even this is debatable.
Before the European set food in the region, Maori culture had no metal tools and they relied on stone and wood. Maori culture survives as the Maoris continue to support and develop their culture on their own terms and conditions, similar to the trend elsewhere in the world.

Land wars: New Zealand’s history is pockmarked with land wars which basically were instigated when the Maori land was confiscated to such extent that the tribe’s survival was itself in jeopardy. One of the many wars that were fought was Titokowaru’s war. It was a conflict that took place in the Taranaki region of the North island of New Zealand between Wanganui and Mount Taranaki from June 1868 to March 1869. it involved the Maori tribe Ngati Ruanui and the Colonial Government of New Zealand.
After the second Taranaki war, effort to regain faith between the tribal and the government were shadowed by continual effort of confiscating land. However, when the settlers began to inhabit tribal land, few from the effected tribe of Ngati Ruanui killed three settlers. This started the war between the settlers and the Maori tribesmen. Such battles were fought among the tribal as well, to declare land supremacy and led to loss on both side.
Revival of its language: Post war years saw a decline in the usage of the Maori language, but currently, it is undergoing a renaissance, as the Maori language medium school and a Maori television channel have been set up from recommendation from the Waitangi Tribunal. It is the only nationwide television in New Zealand to have the majority of its prime time content delivered in Maori with English sub-titles. It is also tries to generate new content. However, it is unfortunate that none of the other television channels present any substantial Maori programmes, despite the fact that it is an official language equal to English.

Problem within: Among the tribes there are serious problems that affect its people. Unfortunately, as the case is every where, the outsiders brought in bad influence along with them. In the case of the Maori tribes, the European settlers brought with them leisure and entertainment activities like gambling, drinking and smoking. Interestingly, Maori is a Unique indigenous population who, prior to contact with Europeans, had no history or any traditional concepts related to gambling. They did not even have a history of brewing alcohol or consumption of tobacco. However, today these people consume these products in different social setting, like, in pubs and clubs.
Normalization of gambling has made it an integral part of this social, economic and cultural infrastructural set up of Maori and New Zealand communities. A study point out that the Maoris spend more on gambling than on education, a legacy of colonization. This despite limited income. It is noted that even though Maoris from only 10 per cent of the entire adult population they amount to at least a quarter of the people who seek professional help to rid gambling.

Sunday, Vijay Times – Bangalore. 02 July 2006









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